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As the demand for high-performance materials increases, so does the importance of surface engineering. The material’s surface is its point of interaction with the external environment and other materials, and will influence factors such as corrosion rates, catalytic activity, adhesive properties, wettability, contact potential, and failure mechanisms.
Surface modification can be used to alter or improve these characteristics; surface analysis is used to understand surface chemistry and investigate the efficacy of surface engineering. From non-stick cookware coatings to thin-film electronics and bio-active surfaces, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is one of the standard tools for surface characterization.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), also known as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), is a technique for analyzing a material’s surface chemistry. XPS can measure elemental composition as well as the chemical and electronic state of the atoms within a material.
XPS spectra are obtained by irradiating a solid surface with a beam of X-rays and measuring the kinetic energy of electrons that are emitted from the top 1-10 nm of the material. A photoelectron spectrum is recorded by counting ejected electrons over a range of kinetic energies. The energies and intensities of the photoelectron peaks enable identification and quantification of all surface elements (except hydrogen).
Surface characterization
The surface represents a discontinuity between one phase and another; the physical and chemical properties of the surface are, therefore, different from those of the bulk material. These differences affect the topmost atomic layer of the material to a large extent because a surface atom is not surrounded by atoms on all sides. This results in the surface atom having a bonding potential, which makes it more reactive than atoms in the bulk.
A surface layer is defined as being up to three atomic layers thick (~1 nm), depending upon the material. Layers up to approximately 10 nm are considered ultra-thin films, and layers up to approximately 1 μm are thin films. The remainder of the solid is referred to as bulk material. This terminology is not definitive however, and the distinction between the layer types can vary depending upon the material and its application.
Single-instrument, multi-technique XPS workflow
When you look at your sample, do you wonder which analysis technique will get you all the pertinent information you need? Is the answer usually that no one single technique will give you everything you need? To fully understand materials, you need to be able to analyze them using multiple techniques. When you use a single-instrument, multi-technique workflow, you can better expose your sample’s properties by exploring it with a combination of many techniques, including XPS, ISS, REELS, UPS, and Raman. Learn how you can get on the fast track to comprehensive surface analysis.
Surface Analysis Learning Center
The chemistry of the surface of a material, or at the interfaces of layers, determines how a material behaves. Our surface analysis references and resources can help you engineer desired properties or better understand materials when they do not perform as expected.
Surface Properties
Surface analysis contributes to the understanding of each of these areas:
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Common properties and processes as a function of material depth or thickness.
Periodic Table
Explore our information-packed knowledge base of elemental properties and XPS analysis.
Analysis Features
Explore the many applications of XPS analysis.
Testimonials – Solving materials problems with XPS analysis
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