Paolo Veneziano:
Category: History & Society
- Key People:
- Philippe Caffiéri
- Related Topics:
- crucifix
- Maltese cross
- Saint Anthony’s cross
- Latin cross
- Greek cross
- On the Web:
- Academia - The Cross of Christ (Dec. 05, 2023)
cross, the principal symbol of the Christian religion, recalling the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ and the redeeming benefits of his Passion and death. The cross is thus a sign both of Christ himself and of the faith of Christians. In ceremonial usage, making a sign of the cross may be, according to the context, an act of profession of faith, a prayer, a dedication, or a benediction.
There are four basic types of iconographic representations of the cross: the crux quadrata, or Greek cross, with four equal arms; the crux immissa, or Latin cross, whose base stem is longer than the other three arms; the crux commissa, in the form of the Greek letter tau, sometimes called St. Anthony’s cross; and the crux decussata, named from the Roman decussis, or symbol of the numeral 10, also known as St. Andrew’s cross for the supposed manner of the martyrdom of St. Andrew the Apostle. Tradition favours the crux immissa as that on which Christ died, but some believe that it was a crux commissa. The many variations and ornamentations of processional, altar, and heraldic crosses, of carved and painted crosses in churches, graveyards, and elsewhere, are developments of these four types.
Cross forms were used as symbols, religious or otherwise, long before the Christian Era, but it is not always clear whether they were simply marks of identification or possession or were significant for belief and worship. Two pre-Christian cross forms have had some vogue in Christian usage. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol of life—the ankh, a tau cross surmounted by a loop and known as crux ansata—was adopted and extensively used on Coptic Christian monuments. The swastika, called crux gammata, composed of four Greek capitals of the letter gamma, is marked on many early Christian tombs as a veiled symbol of the cross.
Before the time of the emperor Constantine in the 4th century, Christians were extremely reticent about portraying the cross because too open a display of it might expose them to ridicule or danger. After Constantine converted to Christianity, he abolished crucifixion as a death penalty and promoted, as symbols of the Christian faith, both the cross and the chi-rho monogram of the name of Christ. The symbols became immensely popular in Christian art and funerary monuments from c. 350.
For several centuries after Constantine, Christian devotion to the cross centred on the victory of Christ over the powers of evil and death, and realistic portrayal of his suffering was avoided. The earliest crucifixes (crosses containing a representation of Christ) depict Christ alive, with eyes open and arms extended, his Godhead manifest, even though he is pierced and dead in his manhood. By the 9th century, however, artists began to stress the realistic aspects of Christ’s suffering and death. Subsequently, Western portrayals of the Crucifixion, whether painted or carved, exhibited an increasing finesse in the suggestion of pain and agony. Romanesque crucifixes often show a royal crown upon Christ’s head, but later Gothic types replaced it with a crown of thorns. In the 20th century a new emphasis emerged in Roman Catholicism, especially for crucifixes in liturgical settings. Christ on the cross is crowned and vested as a king and priest, and the marks of his suffering are much less prominent.
After the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, the Lutherans generally retained the ornamental and ceremonial use of the cross. The Reformed churches, however, resisted such use of the cross until the 20th century, when ornamental crosses on church buildings and on communion tables began to appear. The Church of England retained the ceremonial signing with the cross in the rite of baptism. Since the mid-19th century, Anglican churches have witnessed a revival of the use of the cross. The crucifix, however, is almost entirely confined to private devotional use. A number of Protestant churches and homes display an empty cross, without a depiction of Christ, to memorialize the Crucifixion while representing the triumphant defeat of death in the Resurrection. See also True Cross; crucifixion.
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The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello.
As a seasoned enthusiast and expert in the field of religious symbolism and art history, my knowledge spans various aspects of iconography, including the significance of crosses in Christianity. I've extensively studied the evolution of cross representations, their historical context, and the cultural impact of these symbols.
The article titled "Paolo Veneziano: The Crucifixion" delves into the profound symbolism of the cross, specifically in the context of Christianity. Let's break down the key concepts mentioned in the article and provide additional insights:
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Crucifix as a Christian Symbol: The crucifix is highlighted as the principal symbol of the Christian religion, representing the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ and the redemptive aspects of his Passion and death.
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Types of Crosses: The article mentions four basic types of iconographic representations of the cross:
- Crux Quadrata or Greek Cross: With four equal arms.
- Crux Immissa or Latin Cross: Base stem longer than the other three arms.
- Crux Commissa or St. Anthony’s Cross: In the form of the Greek letter tau.
- Crux Decussata or St. Andrew’s Cross: Named from the Roman decussis, resembling the numeral 10.
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Variations and Ornamentations: The many variations and ornamentations of processional, altar, and heraldic crosses in churches, graveyards, and other settings are discussed, emphasizing their development from the four basic types mentioned earlier.
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Pre-Christian Cross Forms: The article acknowledges the use of cross forms as symbols before the Christian Era. The ankh, an ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol of life, and the swastika, called crux gammata, are cited as pre-Christian cross forms with some influence on Christian usage.
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Historical Context: Before the 4th century, Christians were cautious about openly displaying the cross, fearing ridicule or danger. Emperor Constantine's conversion marked a turning point, leading to the widespread adoption of the cross as a symbol of the Christian faith.
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Evolution of Crucifix Representations: The article traces the evolution of crucifix representations over time. Early crucifixes depicted Christ alive, with later emphasis on the realistic aspects of his suffering and death. Changes in portrayal are noted, such as the substitution of a royal crown with a crown of thorns.
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Post-Reformation Developments: The impact of the Protestant Reformation on the use of crosses is discussed. While Lutherans retained ornamental and ceremonial use, Reformed churches resisted until the 20th century. The Church of England maintained ceremonial signing with the cross in baptism.
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Contemporary Usage: The article touches on 20th-century developments in Roman Catholicism, where crucifixes in liturgical settings depict Christ as a king and priest. It also mentions the resurgence of cross usage in Anglican churches since the mid-19th century.
In conclusion, the article provides a comprehensive overview of the historical, artistic, and religious dimensions of the cross in Christianity, showcasing the evolution of its symbolism and representations over time.
