SCIENCE
Writer: Ellen KathrineBludd,UiT,The Arctic University of Norway
Photographs: Marcel Nicolaus, Ying Chih Fang / MOSAiC, Norwegian Polar Institute
May 2020
Nansen looking at his ship Fram locked in arctic ice. Before his expedition in 1893, more was known about the moon’s surface, than the area north of 85°latitude. ©National Library of Norway
“I am coming, overloaded with scientific data”
“People thought Nansen was mad,”saysHarald DagJølle, polar historian from theNorwegianPolar Institute, currently writing his second book about Nansen.“They thought he would self-destruct in his attempt to drift with the polar ice to the North Pole.”Jølleexplains thatmanybelievedthis impossible, asthe North Pole wasassumed to beon land. Theharsh Arctic conditionsalone would destroyNansen.
Nansen declared that survival depended ononlytwo things: enough food and proper clothing. However, he could not dismiss the brute force of the drifting ice.YetNansen thought to himself:“No ship has ever been constructed for this purpose, so if the ship is designed properly, it could work.”
He joined forces with shipwright Colin Archer and sailor Otto Sverdrup. The result wasa ship Nansen namedFram,whichis the Norwegian word for “forward”.She was abroad-beamed, round-bottomed schooner with a steam engine. Thewoodenship had a lengthof39metres, andwas11metres wide.Framwas anunusuallywideship with an unusuallyshallowdraught,to better withstand the forces of the pressing ice. On board were 13 crew members: a couple of very experienced sailors, a doctor, a botanist, a naval lieutenant, two engineers, a mechanic and a few others.
“Nansen contributed greatly to the scientific knowledge about the Arctic and also to knowledge about global ocean currents in general,” explains Nansen expertJølle.“When Nansen returned to the coast ofnorthernNorway,he first sent atelegram to his wife to tell her that he had returned safely.Hissecond telegramwenttoWaldemar ChristopherBrøgger, professor of Geologyat the Universityin Kristiania (Oslo)saying:‘I am coming,overloaded with scientific data!’
MOSAiC takes climate science to a completely new level
Even asweread, theMOSAiCexpedition is followinginNansen’s footsteps: for an entire year,a modernresearch vesselis drifting with an ice floe– hopefullytowards the North Pole. The data gathered will be used by researchers all over the world, to take climate science to acompletely newlevel.
The ship that theMOSAiCexpedition is sending to follow Nansen’sexampleis research vesselPolarstern, a German ship commissioned in 1982.Sheis still one of theworld’smost advanced and versatile polar research ships.Thanksto special technical details, thisvesselcanhandle the conditions of the grandMOSAiCexpedition during a complete Arctic winter.Sheis capable of operatingin the pack-ice zone, but because of her double-walled steel hull and 20 000 horsepowerengines, she can also easily break through 1.5-metrethick ice and overcome thicker ice by ramming.
MatthiasForwick,head of the GeoscienceDepartmentatUiTThe Arctic University of Norway,hasalreadybeen oneightexpeditions with thePolarstern: fourto the Arctic and four to Antarctica. He describes thePolarsternas a very special boat.
“A colossal lump of steel! And very well maintainedin spite ofher age,”he says.“The shipisvery flexible and can perform all kinds of research becauseit can be adaptedto the activities the scientistwantsto conduct.”
The expedition, which set outfromTromsøin September 2019,canprovidemany new answers.Forwickadds thatmerely planningthe logistics for such a large expedition in the Arctic Oceanis a feat. “Everything must be packed and stored very carefully aboard the boat,becauseonce they have departed,there’s nowhere to dock. It is an unparalleled logistical achievement.”
900 people from 20 nations cooperate in MOSAiC
As soon as thePolarsternhad anchoredat an ice floe, a small city appeared on the surface of the ice. Though theMOSAiCresearchers don’t liveon the ice,thatis where they conduct much of their research. Several instruments for measuring variousparameters related toclimate, ice,andair have beenplaced on thefloe. This operation alone took about two weeks.Anairstripwhere smallairplanes can land was also created on the ice,and there is a helicopter landingpadon board the ship.The expedition is supported by four other icebreakers, in addition toPolarstern.
Inside thePolarsternare various scientific labs where international experts conduct research acrossfivemain areas of interest: atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, ecosystem, and biogeochemistry. At all times,about 100 scientists will be working full time on board the ship.Personnel will be exchangedduringdifferent phases; over the course ofthe year,a total of 600 experts from 20 different countries willspend time onPolarstern. In addition, 300 people work in the background to make the expedition possible. RolfGradinger, professor of Arctic and Marine BiologyatUiT,is one of those people.
Gradingerleads the ecosystem part of theMOSAiCexpedition. He explains that a few years ago,the expedition was just an idea on a piece of paper.
“I find it incredible that this expedition is actually happening. That is a success in itself,”saysGradinger.“This is an amazing collaborative effort between many nations, resulting in the largest Arctic expedition ever,”heexplainsenthusiastically.
Gradingerhas been collaboratively planning this research expedition for more than four years.
“I have been leading the work on putting all the ecosystem research together andfindingout whatkindsof data need to be gathered for all the different projects. It allhas tofit together and becoordinated. The various research teamshave totalk to each other. With 600 colleagues from 20 different countries,this is a puzzle with manypieces.”
When Fram left harbour more was known about the moon than the Arctic
“TheFramexpedition made Nansen world famous mainly because he wentfarthernorth than anyone had ever been before. But the science alone made the expedition valuable,” says historian Harald DagJølle.“Before Nansen left for his expedition,scientists took for granted thattheArctic Oceanwas shallow,andthey thought there mightbe islands there.But Nansen discovered that the ocean was 4000metresdeep!”
“WhenFramleft the harbour in1893, researchers knew more about the surface of the moon, than the areanorthof 85 degrees latitude,”saysJølle.“It was possible to study the moon through a large telescope.”
He explains that when Nansen wasmeasuring the depth of the ArcticOcean,the crew had to fuse together every piece of rope and wire on board the ship in order to reach the bottom.
“It was a big surprise when thesounding line showed the astoundingdepth of 3900metres! No one everimaginedthat,”saysJølle.
Thefact that there was a lot more waterinthe Northern Hemisphere than previouslyassumedmade Nansenrealisethat the ArcticOceanplayed amore importantrole inregulating the global climatethan anticipated.
Jølleexplains: “Nansenunderstood that our knowledge about the world’s oceans wasvastly inadequate, especially consideringthat most of the planet is covered by water and that the oceans greatly impact the global climate. In a way,theFramexpeditionwas the start of the global climate research that we see as so important today.Nansen’sdiscoveries aboutglobaloceancurrentswas also important.”
Measuring instruments
“Nanseninvented a type of water sampler that could be usedto collectwater at great depths,”says Harald DagJølle.
The original Nansenbottleconsisted ofa metal cylinderattached to a cable. When the bottle had been lowered to the desireddepth, a weightwasdropped down the cable, triggering mechanisms that turnedthe bottle upside down andclosed valves at the ends. The bottle andthe watersampletrapped inside it could then beretrieved by hauling in the cable. Thetemperatureoftheocean at the depth where the water was sampled could be determined with a “reversing” thermometer attached to the bottle. When the thermometer is inverted, its mercury column is trapped, showingthe ambient temperatureuntil the bottle has been hauled up and it can berecorded.
“Nansenmadeinvaluablemeasurements of both temperature and salinity – salt content –from the depths of the ArcticOcean,”saysJørgenBerge, professorofArctic and Marine BiologyatUiT.“His measurements anddescriptionsof the oceanographyofthe ArcticOceanstill stand strong.Today we use aCTDthat measurestemperatureand salinity directly at predefineddepths.”
The device Berge is referring to is a descendant of the Nansen bottle, which simultaneously measuresConductivity,Temperature, andDepth, thus giving itthe shorthandnameCTD.
“Nansen had to retrieve a small volume of waterfrom– say –1000metresdepth in order to measure temperature and salinity on the ship,” explains Berge.“Nowadays,we senddownaCTD-rosettethat has a direct connection with a computer onboard the research vessel,whichmeans we getmeasurements in real time.Wecanalso use other platforms that measure and send these kinds ofdata in real time, such as an underwater glider – a small submarinewe controlby changingitsbuoyancy.”
Limited opportunities for personal communication to the world
Just likeFridtjofNansen and his crew,the researchers on thePolarsternmusthandle unexpected events and challenges on their own when they are out on the ship frozen in the ice floe.
“We havea detailed agenda forthesampling and experiments that have to be conducted each day,”says RolfGradinger. “But we cannot control the weather and nature.A storm cancause majorproblems anddelaywork,andthenourplans must be changed.However, there are many smart people on this expedition, and the crew is very experienced in the Arctic, so I think it will run smoothly.”
Thescientistsparticipating intheMOSAiCexpeditionhave limited opportunitiesto communicatewith the world. Datatransfer capacitymustprioritise transmission ofimportant research data. Thus, the participants are fairly isolated from family and friends for long periods of time.”
“The same scientific teamwon’tbe on the ship for a whole year,”Gradingerexplains.“Every three months there is an exchange of both scientificpersonnelandtheship’screw. Andfresh food will be supplied via other icebreakers oraircraft.”
Year-round sampling and experimental work of biologists will provide uniqueinsightsinto the entire food web.
Gradingerdoes research onice algae and other flora and fauna thatliveinside orcloseto the sea ice.Most of us think of the ice as an inhospitable place to live, but itisactuallyteemingwithlife!
“The sea ice is like a Swiss cheese with many holes and channels, perfect hiding places for many small creatures,”Gradingerexplains. Today the list ofsea ice inhabitants includesabout 6500 bacteria, over 1000 algae and 50 animal species.
The Arctic is an epicentrefor global climate change;temperatures arecurrentlyrising faster here than anywhere else on the planet.
“Atpresent, we know very little about whatimpactthemeltingofsea ice can have for thespeciesthat live in the Arctic,” saysGradinger.“In order toensuresustainable management of a changing Arctic, we need more knowledge about this large system.”
Althoughthe last few decades have seensubstantial progress in exploring the Arctic ecosystem, its functioning remainspoorly understood, andtheMOSAiCscientists can makevital contributions. The year-round sampling and experimental work of biologists will provide uniqueinsightsinto the entire food web.
“Nansen really wanted scientific measurements to be as precise as possible,” saysHarald DagJølle.Nansenwouldmost likelyhaveapproved oftheMOSAiCexpedition,with itshighlyadvanced and precise instruments,takingArctic science to the next level.▢
MOSAiC facts:
MOSAiC– Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate
TheMOSAiCexpedition isledbyatmosphericscientistsMarkus RexandKlausDethlofffrom theAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centrefor Polar and Marine Research, and Matthew Shupe from CIRES/NOAA.
The project budget is 140 Million Euros.
Ellen Kathrine Bludd works with science communication at UiT The Arctic University of Norway. She is a member of the editorial committee of Fram Forum. Bludd is living in beautiful surroundings – in Ersfjord, a fjord on the island of Kvaløya in the municipality of Tromsø.
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SCIENCE, CLIMATE CHANGE
Auður Elísabet Jóhannsdóttir
Fridtjof Nansen, Norway, Arctic, MOSAiC, Research, Expedition, Arctic Ocean, Science, Fram, Unlike-Antarctica, obo, Opinion Biden-Harris, end
As an enthusiast with demonstrable knowledge of the topic, I can confidently speak about the historical and contemporary significance of Arctic exploration, especially in the context of the groundbreaking 1893 expedition led by Fridtjof Nansen and the current MOSAiC expedition following in his footsteps.
Fridtjof Nansen's expedition in 1893 was a pioneering effort that not only pushed the boundaries of human exploration but also significantly contributed to scientific understanding. Nansen's innovative approach, as highlighted by historian Harald Dag Jølle, involved designing a specialized ship, the Fram, to withstand the challenging Arctic conditions. The expedition aimed to drift with the polar ice to the North Pole, challenging the prevailing notion that the North Pole was on land.
Nansen's scientific contributions were immense, and his measurements of the depth of the Arctic Ocean shattered previous assumptions. Before the Fram expedition, scientists believed the Arctic Ocean to be shallow, with possible islands. Nansen's measurements revealed the ocean's depth to be 4000 meters, far deeper than anyone had imagined. This discovery had profound implications for understanding the role of the Arctic Ocean in global climate regulation.
One of Nansen's inventions, the Nansen bottle, revolutionized oceanography by allowing scientists to collect water samples from great depths. This metal cylinder, attached to a cable, could be triggered to turn upside down, capturing water samples at specific depths. Nansen's measurements of temperature and salinity provided valuable insights into the oceanography of the Arctic Ocean, setting the stage for later advancements such as the CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth) device used today.
Fast forward to the present day, and we have the MOSAiC expedition, a modern research endeavor that echoes Nansen's spirit. Led by atmospheric scientists Markus Rex, Klaus Dethloff, and Matthew Shupe, the MOSAiC expedition aims to drift with an ice floe for an entire year, gathering data to take climate science to a completely new level.
The research vessel Polarstern, commissioned in 1982, is a testament to technological advancements. Its double-walled steel hull and powerful engines enable it to navigate the pack-ice zone and break through thick ice. The expedition involves approximately 900 people from 20 nations, with a multidisciplinary approach covering atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, ecosystem, and biogeochemistry research.
The logistical challenges of the MOSAiC expedition are immense, requiring careful planning and coordination. Once anchored at an ice floe, a small city emerges on the ice, serving as a base for researchers conducting experiments and measurements related to climate, ice, and air.
The MOSAiC expedition, much like Nansen's Fram expedition, represents a collaborative effort to advance scientific knowledge in the Arctic. The isolation of the researchers, limited opportunities for communication, and the need to adapt to unexpected challenges parallel the experiences of Nansen and his crew. The dedication of scientists like Rolf Gradinger, leading the ecosystem part of the MOSAiC expedition, reflects the ongoing commitment to unraveling the mysteries of the Arctic.
In conclusion, both historical and contemporary Arctic expeditions demonstrate the profound impact of exploration on scientific knowledge. Nansen's legacy lives on in the MOSAiC expedition, emphasizing the importance of continuous research to understand the complexities of the Arctic region and its role in global climate dynamics.
